INFANCY

VITAMIN B6/PYRIDOXINE
(1 gram = 1000 milligrams)

1. A dose of pyridoxine (0.2 – 0.4 grams per kilogram body weight) stopped infantile spasms with hypsarrhythmia.

Neuropediatrics. 1986 Feb;17(1):7-10. 
High dose B6  treatment in infantile spasms.
Blennow G, Starck L.
PMID: 3960285

2. A daily dose of pyridoxine (75 mg) eliminated seizures and abnormal electroencephalogram in a child over 20 months. Anticonvulsant medication was discontinued.

Ann Neurol. 1983 Jan;13(1):103-4. 
Pyridoxine  -dependency seizure: report of a rare presentation.
Krishnamoorthy KS.
PMID: 6830153

3. A daily dose of pyridoxine (100 mg) reduced or eliminated spasm in infants who were receiving therapy for tetanus neonatorum.

J Infect Dis. 1982 Apr;145(4):547-9. 
Trial of pyridoxine   therapy for tetanus neonatorum.
Godel JC.
PMID: 7069234

VITAMIN D

4. Various doses of vitamin D (200, 400, or 800 IU/day) were added to premature infant formula of high calcium (180 mg per 100 kilocalories) and phosphorus (90 mg per 100 kilocalories). Lower doses of vitamin D were as effective as higher doses in maintaining body weight, growth and bone mineral metabolism in underweight, premature babies.

J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1995 Aug;21(2):182-9. 
Effect of three levels of vitamin D intake in preterm infants receiving high mineral-containing milk.
Koo WW, Krug-Wispe S, Neylan M, Succop P, Oestreich AE, Tsang RC.
PMID: 7472905

5. A daily supplement of vitamin D (100 – 400 IU) in calcium/phosphate supplement is needed in premature infants until they reach 2000 grams body weight to reduce incidence of rickets and osteopenia.

Monatsschr Kinderheilkd. 1992 Sep;140(9 Suppl 1):S13-6. 
[Calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D administration in infancy. Unsolved questions]
[Article in German]
Haschke F, Schilling R, Pietschnig B, Mahlberg B.
PMID: 1435821

6. A daily supplement of vitamin D (400 IU) is necessary to maintain vitamin D levels in infants during the winter.

Acta Paediatr Scand. 1983 Nov;72(6):817-21.  

Effect of season and vitamin D supplementation on plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in Norwegian infants.

Markestad T.

VITAMIN K
(1 microgram = 0.001 milligrams)

7. A daily supplement of vitamin K (25 micrograms for 3 month after birth) following an oral dose of vitamin K (1 mg) prevents hemorrhages in infants with low vitamin K.

Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2003 Apr 19;147(16):737-40. 
Comment on:
    Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2003 Apr 19;147(16):748-52.
    Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2003 Apr 19;147(16):752-6.
[Vitamin K deficiency bleeding in an infant despite adequate prophylaxis]
[Article in Dutch]
van Hasselt PM, Houwen RH, van Dijk AT, de Koning TJ.
PMID: 12731461

8. An injected dose of vitamin K (1 mg) prevents hemorrhages in infants with low vitamin K.

Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Mar;88(2):F80-3. 
Comment on:
    Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Mar;88(2):F109-12.
    Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Mar;88(2):F113-8.
Vitamin K--what, why, and when.
Hey E.
PMID: 12598491

9. Breastfeeding infants were given vitamin K supplement twice in their first week of life and their mothers were supplemented with vitamin K (15 mg/day). The infants maintained their vitamin K levels and were at reduced risk for developing hemorrhage disease.

Semin Thromb Hemost. 2002 Dec;28(6):533-8. 
Improvement of Vitamin K status of breastfeeding infants with maternal supplement of Vitamin K2 (MK40).
Nishiguchi T, Yamashita M, Maeda M, Matsuyama K, Kobayashi T, Kanayama N, Terao T.
PMID: 12536346

10. A number of dosage options of vitamin K to newborns is described: 1) vitamin K (orally, 2 mg at birth and 2 mg between days 2 – 7) for formula-fed newborns, 2) vitamin K (orally, 2 mg at birth and 2 mg upon completion of breastfeeding) in exclusively breastfed infants. And 3) for children at high risk of hemorrhage, vitamin K (intravenous or intramuscular, 2 mg at birth and dosage repeated depending on condition of the infant).

Paediatr Drugs. 2001;3(1):1-8. 
Vitamin K in neonates: how to administer, when and to whom.
Autret-Leca E, Jonville-Bera AP.
PMID: 11220402

11. A dose of vitamin K (1 mg intramuscular) at birth can reduce risk of late hemorrhagic disease of the newborn.

Pediatr Int. 2000 Feb;42(1):64-6. 
Late hemorrhagic disease of the newborn.
Bor O, Akgun N, Yakut A, Sarhus F, Kose S.
PMID: 10703238

12. A dose of vitamin K (1 mg orally) at birth following by a dose once every 2 weeks reduced risk of hemorrhage disease in infants.

Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2000 Jan;82(1):F64-8. 
Six years' experience of prophylactic oral Vitamin K.
Wariyar U, Hilton S, Pagan J, Tin W, Hey E.
PMID: 10634845

13. A dose of vitamin K (1 mg intramuscular) at birth is recommended to reduce the risk of hemorrhage disease in infants.

CMAJ. 1996 Feb 1;154(3):347-9. 
Comment on:
    CMAJ. 1996 Feb 1;154(3):307-15.
Administration of Vitamin K to newborns: implications and recommendations.
McMillan DD.
PMID: 8564904

14. A dose of vitamin K (3 mg orally) at birth is recommended to prevent hemorrhage disease in infants.

Arch Pediatr. 1995 Apr;2(4):328-32. 
Comment in:
    Arch Pediatr. 1996 Jan;3(1):89-90; discussion 90.
[Efficacy of oral administration of a micellaar solution of Vitamin K during the neonatal period]
[Article in French]
Maurage C, Dalloul C, Moussa F, Cara B, Dudragne D, Lion N, Amedee-Manesme O.
PMID: 7780540

15. A weekly dose of vitamin K (1 mg orally) is recommended to prevent hemorrhage disease in infants.

Acta Paediatr. 1993 Aug;82(8):656-9. 
Prevention of Vitamin K deficiency in infancy by weekly administration of Vitamin K.
Cornelissen EA, Kollee LA, De Abreu RA, Motohara K, Monnens LA.
PMID: 8374213

16. A daily dose of vitamin K (25 micrograms) is recommended to prevent hemorrhage disease in breast fed infants.

J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1993 Apr;16(3):301-5. 
Evaluation of a daily dose of 25 micrograms Vitamin K1 to prevent Vitamin K deficiency in breast-fed infants.
Cornelissen EA, Kollee LA, van Lith TG, Motohara K, Monnens LA.
PMID: 8492260

17. Oral vitamin K (1 mg) is as effective as intramuscular vitamin K (0.5 mg or 1 mg) at preventing hemorrhagic disease in newborns.

Indian Pediatr. 1992 Jul;29(7):857-9. 
Comment in:
    Indian Pediatr. 1993 May;30(5):713-5.
Comparative study of oral versus injectable Vitamin K in neonates.
Malik S, Udani RH, Bichile SK, Agrawal RM, Bahrainwala AT, Tilaye S.
PMID: 1428134

18. Oral vitamin K (1 mg) is as effective as intramuscular vitamin K (1 mg) at preventing hemorrhagic disease in newborns.

Acta Paediatr Scand. 1991 Mar;80(3):304-7. 
Vitamin K to neonates. Peroral versus intramuscular administration.
Jorgensen FS, Felding P, Vinther S, Andersen GE.
PMID: 2035325

19. A dose of vitamin K (2 - 3 mg orally) at birth is recommended to prevent early hemorrhage disease in infants.

Orv Hetil. 1990 Mar 18;131(11):577-82. 
[Prothrombin and acarboxyprothrombin activity in neonates after oral and intramuscular administration of Vitamin K]
[Article in Hungarian]
Goldschmidt B, Verbenyi M, Kovacs I, Ilin E, Varga K, Nemet T.
PMID: 2314877

20. Oral vitamin K (1 mg) is as effective as intramuscular vitamin K (0.5 mg or 1 mg) at preventing hemorrhagic disease in newborns.

Indian Pediatr. 1989 Oct;26(10):992-5. 
Efficacy of oral water soluble Vitamin K in neonates.
Sen S, Kumari S, Narayan S, Bains C, Dutta AK.
PMID: 2630463

21. An intramuscular dose of vitamin K (10 mg every 5 days until delivery) in pregnant mothers reduced the incidence of hemorrhage in premature infants.

Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988 Sep;159(3):774-9. 
The use of antenatal Vitamin K in the prevention of early neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage.
Morales WJ, Angel JL, O'Brien WF, Knuppel RA, Marsalisi F.
PMID: 3421279

22. An intramuscular dose of vitamin K (10 mg, 4 hours before delivery) in pregnant mothers significantly reduced the incidence of hemorrhage in their infants after birth.

Obstet Gynecol. 1987 Aug;70(2):235-41. 
Maternally administered antenatal Vitamin K1: effect on neonatal prothrombin activity, partial thromboplastin time, and intraventricular hemorrhage.
Pomerance JJ, Teal JG, Gogolok JF, Brown S, Stewart ME.
PMID: 3601288

23. A dose of vitamin K (2 mg orally) at birth and at 1 week of age (4 mg orally) protected infants from intracranial hemorrhage.

Brain Dev. 1987;9(3):305-8. 
Prophylaxis of intracranial hemorrhage due to Vitamin K deficiency in infants.
Matsuzaka T, Yoshinaga M, Tsuji Y.
PMID: 3661911

24. Oral vitamin K (2 mg) is as effective as intramuscular vitamin K (1 mg) at preventing hemorrhagic disease in newborns.

J Med Assoc Thai. 1986 Oct;69 Suppl 2:56-61. 
Vitamin K prophylaxis in the neonate by the oral route and its significance in reducing infant mortality and morbidity.
Isarangkura PB, Bintadish P, Tejavej A, Siripoonya P, Chulajata R, Green GM, Chalermchandra K.
PMID: 3805949

25. Daily doses of vitamin K (4 mg) given to the mother of breastfed infants prevented vitamin K deficiency in the infants.

Nippon Sanka Fujinka Gakkai Zasshi. 1986 Jun;38(6):880-6. 
[Effect of Vitamin K administration to the mother for prevention of Vitamin K deficiency in the neonate]
[Article in Japanese]
Tamura T, Takasaki K, Yanaihara T, Maruyama M, Nakayama T.
PMID: 3734519

IRON

26. Daily doses of iron (1 mg per kilogram body weight) and erythropoietin (200 IU per kilogram body weight) administered to low birth weigh infants for 14 days stimulated erythropoiesis and reduced incidence of transfusion.

J Pediatr. 1997 Nov;131(5):661-5. 
Comment in:
    J Pediatr. 1997 Nov;131(5):653-5.
The effect of erythropoietin on the transfusion requirements of preterm infants weighing 750 grams or less: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.
Ohls RK, Harcum J, Schibler KR, Christensen RD.
PMID: 9403642

27. Daily doses of iron (4 – 5 mg per kilogram body weight) administered to infants (32 months old) for 8 weeks significantly stimulated weight gain.

Rev Paul Med. 1993 Nov-Dec;111(6):439-44. 
Effect of oral iron therapy on physical growth.
Morais MB, Ferrari AA, Fisberg M.
PMID: 8052789

28. Milk supplemented with iron (15 mg) and ascorbic acid (100 mg per 1000 mg milk powder) significantly prevented anemia and improved nutrition in infants compared to those not receiving supplemented milk.

Rev Med Chil. 1990 Dec;118(12):1330-7. 
[Iron-deficiency anemia in the nursing infant: its elimination with iron-fortified milk]
[Article in Spanish]
Hertrampf E, Olivares M, Walter T, Pizarro F, Heresi G, Llaguno S, Vega V, Cayazzo M, Chadud P.
PMID: 2152664

29. Daily doses of iron (10 mg) and zinc (10 mg) for 6 months reduced deficiencies in these supplements and decreased incidence of anemia in 4-month-old infants.

J Nutr. 2001 Nov;131(11):2860-5. 
Effects of iron and zinc supplementation in Indonesian infants on micronutrient status and growth.
Dijkhuizen MA, Wieringa FT, West CE, Martuti S, Muhilal.
PMID: 11694609

ZINC

30. Daily supplementation of zinc (5 mg per kilogram body weight) increased growth velocity in short children aged 7 – 10. This effect discontinued when supplementation discontinued.

J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Sep-Oct;13(8):1121-8. 
Linear growth and zinc supplementation in children with short stature.
Sayeg Porto MA, Oliveira HP, Cunha AJ, Miranda G, Guimaraes MM, Oliveira WA, dos Santos DM.
PMID: 11085191

31. Supplementation with zinc (10 mg/day for 6 days/week for 6 months) increased growth and weight in stunted children compared to non-stunted children or children on placebo. Incidence of anorexia was also reduced in supplemented children.

Lancet. 2000 Jun 10;355(9220):2021-6. 
Comment in:
    Lancet. 2000 Jun 10;355(9220):2008-9.
Zinc supplementation and stunted infants in Ethiopia: a randomised controlled trial.
Umeta M, West CE, Haidar J, Deurenberg P, Hautvast JG.
PMID: 10885352

32. Supplementation with zinc (3 mg/day for 6 months) increased weight gain and linear growth in low birth weight infants compared to those taking placebo.

J Pediatr. 1995 Aug;127(2):206-11. 
Zinc supplementation and growth of infants born small for gestational age.
Castillo-Duran C, Rodriguez A, Venegas G, Alvarez P, Icaza G.
PMID: 7636643

33. Compared to placebo, supplementation with zinc (10 mg/day for 12 months) increased growth velocity in short stature adolescents.

Acta Paediatr. 1994 Aug;83(8):833-7. 
Zinc supplementation increases growth velocity of male children and adolescents with short stature.
Castillo-Duran C, Garcia H, Venegas P, Torrealba I, Panteon E, Concha N, Perez P.
PMID: 7981560

34. Compared to placebo, supplementation with zinc (2 mg/day per kilogram body weight) for 60 days increased weight gain and improved immune function in malnourished infants.

Am J Clin Nutr. 1987 Mar;45(3):602-8. 
Controlled trial of zinc supplementation during recovery from malnutrition: effects on growth and immune function.
Castillo-Duran C, Heresi G, Fisberg M, Uauy R.
PMID: 3103416

35. Supplementation with oral zinc (2.5 mg/day per kilogram body weight) reversed symptoms of necrotizing enterocolitis in a premature infant.

Zhonghua Min Guo Xiao Er Ke Yi Xue Hui Za Zhi. 1996 Sep-Oct;37(5):364-9. 
Comment in:
    Zhonghua Min Guo Xiao Er Ke Yi Xue Hui Za Zhi. 1996 Sep-Oct;37(5):311.
Impaired immune function in a premature infant with zinc deficiency after total parenteral nutrition.
Fan PC, Teng RJ, Chou CC, Wu TJ, Tsou Yau KI, Hsieh KH.
PMID: 8942032

36. Daily supplementation with oral zinc (5 mg/day per kilogram body weight) for 6 months increased calorie intake and growth velocity in short boys with zinc deficiency compared to boys without supplementation.

J Pediatr. 1993 Jul;123(1):65-9. 
Comment in:
    J Pediatr. 1994 Jan;124(1):163-4.
Mild to moderate zinc deficiency in short children: effect of zinc supplementation on linear growth velocity.
Nakamura T, Nishiyama S, Futagoishi-Suginohara Y, Matsuda I, Higashi A.
PMID: 8320627

37. Supplementation with oral zinc (10 mg/day) for 25 weeks days resulted in changes in body composition in Guatemalan children compared to those receiving placebo.

Am J Clin Nutr. 1993 Mar;57(3):344-52. 
Growth and body composition of periurban Guatemalan children in relation to zinc status: a longitudinal zinc intervention trial.
Cavan KR, Gibson RS, Grazioso CF, Isalgue AM, Ruz M, Solomons NW.
PMID: 8438768

38. Daily supplementation of zinc (22.5 mg and then 11 mg) in a premature infant with stunted growth and acrodermatitis reversed the symptoms.

Ugeskr Laeger. 1990 Sep 3;152(36):2571-2. 
[Zinc deficiency in a premature infant]
[Article in Danish]
Weismann K, Arroe M.
PMID: 2402848

39. Supplementation with oral zinc (150 mg/day) increased weight gain and healed skin lesions in a premature infant failing to gain weight.

J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1989 Nov;9(4):513-6. 
Clinical zinc deficiency during zinc-supplemented formula.
Naveh Y, Mandel H, Berant M.
PMID: 2621529

40. Daily supplementation with intravenous zinc sulfate (500 micrograms per kilogram body weight) eliminated diarrhea, anorexia, rash and alopecia while increasing weight gain in infants with zinc deficiency.

J Pediatr Surg. 1981 Jun;16(3):236-40. 
Clinical spectrum of zinc deficiency in pediatric patients receiving total parenteral nutrition (TPN).
Weber TR, Sears N, Davies B, Grosfeld JL.
PMID: 6788929